Evidence-Based Reviews

Using rating scales in a clinical setting: A guide for psychiatrists

Current Psychiatry. 2017 February;16(2):21-25

References

1. McDowell I. Measuring health: a guide to rating scales and questionnaires. 3rd ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press; 2006.
2. Kennedy Forum. Fixing behavioral health care in America: a national call for integrating and coordinating specialty behavioral health care with the medical system. http://thekennedyforum-dot-org.s3.amazonaws.com/documents/KennedyForum-BehavioralHealth_FINAL_3.pdf. Published 2015. Accessed January 13, 2017.
3. The Office of the National Coordinator for Health Information Technology. Behavioral health (BH) Clinical Quality Measures (CQMs) Program initiatives. https://www.healthit.gov/sites/default/files/pdf/2012-09-27-behavioral-health-clinical-quality-measures-program-initiatives-public-forum.pdf. Published September 27, 2012. Accessed January 13, 2017.
4. Unutzer J, Harbin H, Schoenbaum M. The collaborative care model: an approach for integrating physical and mental health care in Medicaid health homes. https://www.medicaid.gov/State-Resource-Center/Medicaid-State-Technical-Assistance/Health-Homes-Technical-Assistance/Downloads/HH-IRC-Collaborative-5-13.pdf. Published May 2013. Accessed January 13, 2016.
5. World Group On Psychiatric Evaluation; American Psychiatric Association Steering Committee On Practice Guidelines. Practice guideline for the psychiatric evaluation of adults. 2nd ed. http://psychiatryonline.org/pb/assets/raw/sitewide/practice_guidelines/guidelines/psychevaladults.pdf. Published June 2006. Accessed January 13, 2016.
6. Melek S, Norris D, Paulus J. Economic impact of integrated medical-behavioral healthcare: implications for psychiatry. Denver, CO: Milliman, Inc; 2014.
7. Archer J, Bower P, Gilbody S, et al. Collaborative care for depression and anxiety problems. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2012;10:CD006525. doi: 10.1002/14651858.CD006525.pub2.
8. Kennedy P. Forum. Fixing behavioral health care in America: a national call for measurement-based care. https://www.thekennedyforum.org/news/measurement-based-care-issue-brief. Published December 10, 2015. Accessed January 13, 2017.
9. Zimmerman M, McGlinchey JB. Why don’t psychiatrists use scales to measure outcome when treating depressed patients? J Clin Psychiatry. 2008;69(12):1916-1919.
10. Hatfield D, McCullough L, Frantz SH, et al. Do we know when our clients get worse? An investigation of therapists’ ability to detect negative client change. Clin Psychol Psychother. 2010;17(1):25-32.
11. SAMHSA-HRSA Center for Integrated Solutions. Screening tools. http://www.integration.samhsa.gov/clinical-practice/screening-tools. Accessed January 14, 2016.
12. Moller HJ. Standardised rating scales in psychiatry: methodological basis, their possibilities and limitations and descriptions of important rating scales. World J Biol Psychiatry. 2009;10(1):6-26.
13. Sajatovic M, Ramirez LF. Rating scales in mental health. 2nd ed. Hudson, OH: Lexi-Comp; 2003.
14. Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). http://www.agencymeddirectors.wa.gov/files/AssessmentTools/14-PHQ-9%20overview.pdf. Accessed February 16, 2016.
15. Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9). Rehab Measures Web site. http://www.rehabmeasures.org/Lists/RehabMeasures/DispForm.aspx?ID=954. Updated August 28, 2014. Accessed February 16, 2016.
16. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. The PHQ-9: validity of a brief depression severity measure. J Gen Intern Med. 2001;16(9):606-613.
17. Löwe B, Unützer J, Callahan CM, et al. Monitoring depression treatment outcomes with the Patient Health Questionnaire-9. Med Care. 2004;42(12):1194-1201.
18. Ketter TA. Strategies for monitoring outcomes in patients with bipolar disorder. Prim Care Companion J Clin Psychiatry. 2010;12(suppl 1):10-16.
19. The Mood Disorder Questionnaire. University of Texas Medical Branch. http://www.dbsalliance.org/pdfs/MDQ.pdf. Published 2000. Accessed March 1, 2016.
20. Hirschfeld RM, Holzer C, Calabrese JR, et al. Validity of the mood disorder questionnaire: a general population study. Am J Psychiatry. 2003;160(1):178-180.
21. Boschloo L, Nolen WA, Spijker AT, et al. The Mood Disorder Questionnaire (MDQ) for detecting (hypo)manic episodes: its validity and impact of recall bias. J Affect Disord. 2013;151(1):203-208.
22. Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB, et al. A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Arch Intern Med. 2006;166(10):1092-1097.
23. Lowe B, Decker O, Müller S, et al. Validation and standardization of the Generalized Anxiety Disorder Screener (GAD-7) in the general population. Med Care. 2008;46(3):266-274.
24. Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB, et al. Anxiety disorders in primary care: prevalence, impairment, comorbidity, and detection. Ann Intern Med. 2007;146(5):317-325.
25. Ewing JA. Detecting alcoholism. The CAGE Questionnaire. JAMA. 1984;252(14):1905-1907.
26. CAGE substance abuse screening tool. Johns Hopkins Medicine. http://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/johns_hopkins_healthcare/downloads/CAGE%20Substance%20Screening%20Tool.pdf. Accessed January 13, 2017.
27. O’Brien CP. The CAGE questionnaire for detection of alcoholism: a remarkably useful but simple tool. JAMA. 2008;300(17):2054-2056.
28. Bernadt MW, Mumford J, Taylor C, et al. Comparison of questionnaire and laboratory tests in the detection of excessive drinking and alcoholism. Lancet. 1982;1(8267):325-328.
29. Columbia Suicide-Severity Rating Scale (CS-SRS). http://cssrs.columbia.edu/the-columbia-scale-c-ssrs/cssrs-for-communities-and-healthcare/#filter=.general-use.english. Accessed March 6, 2016.
30. Mundt JC, Greist JH, Jefferson JW, et al. Prediction of suicidal behavior in clinical research by lifetime suicidal ideation and behavior ascertained by the electronic Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale. J Clin Psychiatry. 2013;74(9):887-893.
31. Posner K, Brown GK, Stanley B, et al. The Columbia-Suicide Severity Rating Scale: initial validity and internal consistency findings from three multisite studies with adolescents and adults. Am J Psychiatry. 2011;168(12):1266-1277.
32. Esposito L. Suicide Checklist Spots People at Highest Risk. USA Today. http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/story/health/story/2011-11-09/Suicide-checklist-spots-people-at-highest-risk/51135944/1. Published November 9, 2011. Accessed March 6, 2016.

CAGE questionnaire for detection of substance use

The CAGE questionnaire is a widely-used screening tool that was originally developed to detect alcohol abuse, but has been adapted to assess other substance abuse.^25,26 The omission of substance abuse from diagnostic consideration can have a major effect on quality of care, because substance abuse can be the underlying cause of other diseases. Therefore, routine administration of this instrument in clinical practice can lead to better understanding and monitoring of patient health.²⁷

Similar to other instruments, CAGE is free and available online.²⁷ It contains 4 simple questions, with 1 point is assigned to each positive answer.

Have you ever:
1. Felt the need to cut down on your drinking or drug use?
2. Have people annoyed you by criticizing your drinking or drug use?
3. Have you felt bad or guilty about your drinking or drug use?
4. Have you ever had a drink or used drugs first thing in the morning to steady your nerves or to get rid of a hangover (eye-opener)?

The simple mnemonic CAGE makes the questions easy to remember and to administer in a clinical setting. CAGE has demonstrated validity, with one study determining that CAGE scores ≥2 had a specificity and sensitivity of 76% and 93%, respectively, for identifying excessive drinking, and a specificity and sensitivity of 77% and 91%, respectively, for identifying alcohol abuse.²⁸

Columbia Suicide Severity Rating Scale (C-SSRS)

C-SSRS was developed by researchers at Columbia University to assess the severity of and track changes over time in suicidal ideation and behavior. C-SSRS is 2 pages and takes only a few minutes to administer; however, it also may be completed as a self-report measure. The questions are phrased for use in an interview format, and clinicians are encouraged to receive training prior to its administration, although specific training in mental health is not required.

The “Lifetime/Recent” version allows practitioners to gather lifetime history of suicidality as well as any recent suicidal ideation and/or behavior, whereas the “Since Last Visit” version of the scale assesses suicidality in patients who have completed at least 1 Lifetime/Recent C-SSRS assessment. A truncated, 6-item “Screener” version is typically used in emergency situations. A risk assessment can be added to either the Full or Screener version to summarize the answers from C-SSRS and document risk and protective factors.²⁹

Several studies have found C-SSRS to be reliable and valid for identifying suicide risk in children and adults.^30,31USA Today reported that an individual exhibiting even a single behavior identified by the scale is 8 to 10 times more likely to complete suicide.³² In addition, the C-SSRS has helped reduce the suicide rate 65% in one of the largest providers of community-based behavioral health care in the United States.³²

Using scales to augment care

Each of the scales described in this article can easily be incorporated into clinical practice and offers psychiatrists important clinical information that may have been missed or not addressed in the initial clinical interview. This information can be used to follow progression of symptoms and effectiveness of treatment. Although rating scales should never be used alone to establish a diagnosis or clinical treatment plan, they can and should be used to augment information from the clinician’s assessment and follow-up interviews.⁵

Bottom Line

Despite the importance of tracking patients’ progress through the use of validated clinical rating scales, there is gross underutilization of such instruments. Several readily available rating scales are brief, useful, and easy to incorporate into clinical practice.

Related Resources

Rittenhouse DR, Shortell SM, Fisher ES. Primary care and accountable care—two essential elements of delivery-system reform. N Engl J Med. 2009;361(24):2301-2303.

Sapyta J, Riemer M, Bickman L. Feedback to clinicians: theory, research, and practice. J Clin Psychol. 2005;61(2):145-153.