Antimicrobial Stewardship Programs: Effects on Clinical and Economic Outcomes and Future Directions

As such, the findings across pooled studies for ASPs are hard to amalgamate and draw concrete conclusions from. This difficulty is due to the inherent heterogeneity when comparing smaller individual studies in systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Currently, there are numerous ways to implement an ASP, but there is not a standardized system of specific interventions or metrics. Until we can directly compare similar ASPs and interventions among various institutions, it will be challenging to generalize positive benefits from systematic reviews and meta-analyses. Currently, the CDC is involved in a new initiative in which data from various hospitals are compiled to create a surveillance database [48]. Although this is a step in the right direction for standardized metrics for stewardship, for the current review the lack of standard metrics leads to conflicting results of heterogenic studies, making it difficult to show clear benefits in clinical outcomes.

Despite the vast array of ASPs, their differences, and a range of clinical measures—many with conflicting evidence—there is a noticeable trend toward a more prudent use of antimicrobials. Based on the review of available evidence, inpatient ASPs improve patient care and preserve an important health care resource—antibiotics. As has been presented, this is demonstrated by the alterations in consumption of these agents, has ramifications for secondary outcomes such as reduced instances of C. difficile infections, resistance, and adverse effects, and overall translates into better patient care and reduced costs. But while we can conclude that the direct interventions of stewardship in reducing and restricting antibiotic use have been effective, we cannot clearly state the overall magnitude of benefit, the effectiveness of various ASP structures and components on clinical outcomes (such as LOS, mortality, etc.), and the cost savings due to the heterogeneity of the available evidence.

Future Directions

Moving forward, the future of ASPs encompasses several potential developments. First and foremost, as technological advancements continue to develop, there is a need to integrate and utilize developments in information technology (IT). Baysari et al conducted a review on the value of utilizing IT interventions, focusing mainly on decision support (stand-alone or as a component of other hospital procedures), approval, and surveillance systems [49]. There was benefit associated with these IT interventions in terms of the improvement in the appropriate use of antimicrobials (RR 1.49, 95% CI, 1.07–2.08, P < 0.05; I ² = 93%), but there was no demonstrated benefit in terms of patient mortality or hospital LOS. Aside from this study, broad evidence is still lacking to support the use of IT systems in ASPs because meaningful comparisons amongst the interventions have not been made due to widespread variability in study design and outcome measures. However, it is generally agreed that ASPs must integrate with IT systems as the widespread use of technology within the healthcare field continues to grow. Evidence needs to be provided in the form of higher quality studies centered on similar outcomes to show appropriate approaches for ASPs to leverage IT systems. At a minimum, the integration of IT into ASPs should not hinder clinical outcomes. An important consideration is the variation in practice settings where antibiotic stewardship is to be implemented; eg, a small community hospital will be less equipped to incorporate and support technological tools compared to a large tertiary teaching hospital. Therefore, any antibiotic stewardship IT intervention must be customized to meet local needs, prescriber behaviors, minimize barriers to implementation, and utilize available resources.