Clinical Review

Experiencing Age-Related Vision and Hearing Impairment: The Psychosocial Dimension

Journal of Clinical Outcomes Management. 2014 July;21(7)

References

1. Oeppen J, Vaupel JW. Broken limits to life expectancy. Science 2002;296:1029–31.

2. Eichenbaum JW. Geriatric vision loss due to cataracts, macular degeneration, and glaucoma. Mt Sinai J Med 2012;79:276–94.

3. Ciorba A, Bianchini C, Pelucchi S, et al. The impact of hearing loss on the quality of life of elderly adults. Clin Interven Aging 2012;7:159–63.

4. WHO - World Health Organization and International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness. Developing an action plan to prevent blindness at national, provincial and district levels. Vision 2020 The right to sight. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004.

5. WHO - World Health Organizaton. Grades of hearing impairment. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013.

6. Schneider JM, Gopinath B, McMahon CM, et al. Dual sensory impairment in older age. J Aging Health 2011;23:1309–24.

7. Clay OJ, Wadley VG, Edwards JD, et al. Cumulative meta-analysis of the relationship between useful field of view and driving performance in older adults: current and future implications. Optom Vis Sci 2005;82:724–31.

8. Seland JH, Vingerling JR, Augood CA, et al. Visual Impairment and quality of life in the Older European Population, the EUREYE study. Acta Ophthal 2011;89:608–13.

9. Horowitz A, Brennan M, Reinhardt JP. Prevalence and risk factors for self-reported visual impairment among middle-aged and older adults. Research Aging 2005;27:307–26.

10. Gopinath B, Rochtchina E, Wang JJ, et al. Prevalence of age-related hearing loss in older adults: Blue mountains study. Arch Intern Med 2009;169:415–6.

11. Roth TN, Hanebuth D, Probst R. Prevalence of age-related hearing loss in Europe: a review. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2011;268:1101–7.

12. Lin FR, Thorpe R, Gordon-Salant S, et al. Hearing loss prevalence and risk factors among older adults in the United States. J Gerontol Series A: Biolog Sci Med Sci 2011;66A:582–90.

13. Brennan M, Horowitz A, Su Y-p. Dual sensory loss and its impact on everyday competence. Gerontologist 2005;45:337–46.

14. Anstey KJ, Luszcz MA, Giles LC, et al. Demographic, health, cognitive, and sensory variables as predictors of mortality in very old adults. Psychol Aging 2001;16:3–11.

15. Appollonio I, Carabellese C, Magni E, et al. Sensory impairments and mortality in an elderly community population: A six-year follow-up study. Age Ageing 1995;24:30–6.

16. McCarty CA, Nanjan MB, Taylor HR. Vision impairment predicts 5 year mortality. Br J Ophthalmol 2001;85:322–6.

17. Ostbye T, Steenhuis R, Wolfson C, et al. Predictors of five-year mortality in older Canadians: the Canadian Study of Health and Aging. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999 47:1249–54.

18. Wahl H-W, Heyl V, Drapaniotis PM, et al. Severe vision and hearing impairment and successful aging: A multidimensional view. Gerontologist 2013;53:950–62.

19. Fisher D, Li C-M, Chiu MS, et al. Impairments in hearing and vision impact on mortality in older people: the AGES-Reykjavik Study. Age Ageing 2013.

20. Bamini G, Schneider J, McMahon CM, et al. Dual sensory impairment in older adults inceases the risk of mortality: A population-based study. PLoS ONE 2013;8:1–6.

21. Lam BL, Lee DJ, Gómez-Marín O, et al. Concurrent visual and hearing impairment and risk of mortality: The National Health Interview Survey. Arch Ophthalmol 2006;124:95–101.

22. Baltes MM, Maas I, Wilms H-U, et al. Everyday competence in old and very old age: Theoretical considerations and empirical findings. In: Baltes PB, Mayer K-U, editors. The Berlin Aging Study Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1999: 384–402.

23. Burmedi D, Becker S, Heyl V, et al. Behavioral consequences of age-related low vision: A narrative review. Vis Impair Res 2002;4:15–45.

24. Wahl H-W, Heyl V, Schilling O. Robustness of personality and affect relations under chronic conditions: the case of age-related vision and hearing impairment. J Gerontol B Psycholog Sci Soc Sci 2012;67:687–96.

25. Heyl V, Wahl H-W. On the long-term psychosocial adaptation to vision loss in the later years. In: Wahl H-W, Schulze H-E, editors. On the special needs of blind and low vision seniors: Research and practice concepts. Amsterdam: IOS-Press; 2001: 77–83.

26. Wahl H-W, Schilling O, Oswald F, et al. Psychosocial consequences of age-related visual impairment: Comparison with mobility-impaired older adults and long-term outcome. J Gerontol Psych Sci Soc Sci 1999;54B:P304–P16.

27. Wahl H-W, Becker S, Burmedi D, et al. The role of primary and secondary control in adaptation to age-related vision loss: A study of older adults with macular degeneration Psychol Aging 2004;19:235–9.

28. Rudberg MA, Furner SE, Dunn JE, et al. The relationship of visual and hearing impairments to disability: An analysis using the Longitudinal Study of Aging. J Gerontol Med Sci 1993;48:M261–M5.

29. Schneider J, Gopinath B, Karpa MJ, et al. Hearing loss impacts on the use of community and informal supports. Age Ageing 2010;39:458–64.

30. Mangione CM, Lee PP, Gutierrez PR, et al. Development of the 25-item National Eye Institute visual function questionnaire. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1050–8.

31. Ventry I, Weinstein B. The hearing handicap inventory for the elderly: A new tool. Ear Hearing 1982;3:128–34.

32. Lindenberger U, Baltes PB. Sensory functioning and intelligence in old age: A strong connection. Psychol Aging 1994;9:339–55.

33. Clay OJ, Edwards JD, Ross LA, et al. Visual function and cognitive speed of processing mediate age-related decline in memory span and fluid intelligence. J Aging Health 2009;21:547–66.

34. Salthouse TA, Hancock HE, Meinz EJ, et al. Interrelations of age, visual acuity, and cognitive functioning. J Gerontol Psychol Sci 1996;51B:P317–P30.

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40. Heyl V, Wahl H-W, Mollenkopf H. Visual capacity, out-of-home activities and emotional well-being in old age: Basic relations and contextual variation. Soc Indicat Res 2005;74:159–89.

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42. Rovner BW, Casten RJ, Leiby BE. Variability in depressive symptoms predicts cognitive decline in age-related macular degeneration. Am J Geriatr Psych 2009;17:574–81

43. Rovner BW, Casten RJ, Leiby BE, et al. Activity loss is associated with cognitive decline in age-related macular degeneration. Thomas Jefferson University, Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, Faculty Papers. Paper 5. 2009.

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49. Nachtegaal J, Smit JH, Smits C, et al. The association between hearing status and psychosocial health before the age of 70 years: Results from an internet-based national survey on hearing. Ear Hearing 2009;30:302-12

50. Wallhagen MI. The stigma of hearing loss. Gerontologist 2010;50:66–75.

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55. Tesch-Römer C. Schwerhörigkeit im Alter. Belastung, Bewältigung, Rehabilitation. Heidelberg: Median-Verlag; 2001.

56. Kiely KM, Anstey KJ, Luszcz MA. Dual sensory loss and depressive symptoms: the importance of hearing, daily functioning, and activity engagement. Front Hum Neurosci 2013;7:1–13.

57. Schilling OK, Wahl H-W, Horowitz A, et al. The adaptation dynamics of chronic functional impairment: What we can learn from older adults with vision loss. Psychol Aging 2011;26:203–13.

58. Kunzmann U, Little T, Smith J. Is age-related stability of subjective well-being a paradox? Cross-sectional and longitudinal evidence from the Berlin Aging Study. Psychol Aging 2000;15:511-26.

59. Schilling O, Wahl H-W. Modeling late life adaptation in affective well-being under a severe chronic health condition: The case of age-related macular degeneration. Psychol Aging. 2006;21:703–14.

60. Wahl H-W, Schilling O, Becker S, et al. A German research program on the psychosocial adaptation to age-related vision impairment: Recent findings based on a control theory approach. Europ Psychol 2003;8:168-77.

61. Casten R, Rovner B. Depression in age-related macular degeneration. J Visual Impair Blind 2008;102:591-9.

62. Crews JE, Campbell VA. Vision impairment and hearing loss among community-dwelling older Americans: implications for health and functioning. Am J Pub Health 2004;94:823–9.

63. Horowitz A, Reinhardt JP, Boerner K. The effect of rehabilitation on depression among visually disabled older adults. Aging Mental Health 2005;9:563–70.

64. Cimarolli VR. Perceived overprotection and distress in adults with visual impairment. Rehabil Psychol 2006;51:338-45.

65. Ishine M, Okumiya K, Matsubayashi K. A close association between hearing impairment and activities of daily living, depression, and quality of life in community-dwelling older people in Japan. J Am Geriatr Soc 2007;55:316-7.

66. Gopinath B, Wang JJ, Schneider J, et al. Depressive symptoms in older adults with hearing impairments: The Blue Mountains Study. J Am Geriatr Soc 2009;57:1306-8.

67. Chou K-L, Chi I. Combined effect of vision and hearing impairment on depression in elderly Chinese. Int J Geriatr Psych 2004;19:825-32.

68. Tambs K. Moderate effects of hearing loss on mental health and subjective well-being: Results from the Nord-Trøndelag Hearing Loss Study. Psychosom Med 2004;66:776-82.

69. Bernabei V, Morini V, Moretti F, et al. Vision and hearing impairments are associated with depressive--anxiety syndrome in Italian elderly. Aging Ment Health 2011 15:467-74.

70. Wahl H-W, Heyl V, Langer N. Lebensqualität bei Seheinschränkung im Alter: Das Beispiel altersabhängige Makuladegeneration [Quality of life by limited vision in old age: the example of age-related macula degeneration]. Der Ophthalmologe 2008;105:735-43.

71. Wahl H-W, Kämmerer A, Holz F, et al. Psychosocial intervention for age-related macular degeneration: A pilot project. J Vis Impair Blind 2006;100:533-44.

72. Rees G, Keeffe JE, Hassell J, et al. A self-management program for low vision: Program overview and pilot evaluation. Disabil Rehab 2010;32:808-15.

73. Rovner BW, Casten RJ. Preventing late-life depression in age-related macular degeneration. Am J Geriatr Psych 2008;16:454-9

74. Eklund K, Sonn U, Nystedt P, et al. A cost-effectiveness analysis of a health education programme for elderly persons with age-related macular degeneration: A longitudinal study. Disabil Rehab 2005;27:1203-12.

75. Pijnacker J, Verstraten P, van Damme W, et al. Rehabilitation of reading in older individuals with macular degeneration: A review of effective training programs. Aging Neuropsych Cognition. 2011;18:708-32.

76. Colcombe S, Kramer AF. Fitness effects on the cognitive function of older adults: A meta-analytic study. Psychol Sci 2003;14:125-30.

77. Kovács É, Tóth K, Dénes L, et al. Effects of exercise programs on balance in older women with age-related visual problems: A pilot study. Arch Gerontol Geriatr 2012;55:446-52.

78. McDonnall MC. Physical status as a moderator of depressive symptoms among older adults with dual sensory loss. Rehab Psychol 2011;56:67-76.

79. Chen EW, Fu ASN, Chan KM, et al. The effects of Tai Chi on the balance control of elderly persons with visual impairment: a randomised clinical trial. Age Ageing 2012;41:254-9.

80. Miszko TA, Ramsey VK, Blasch BB. Tai Chi for people with visual impairments: a pilot study. J Vis Impair Blind 2004;98:5-13.

81. Ray C, Horvat M, Keen K, et al. Using Tai Chi as an exercise intervention for improving balance in adults with visual impairments: Two case studies. RE:view 2005;37:17-24.

82. Jeter PE, Dagnelie G, Khalsa SBS, et al. Yoga for persons with severe visual impairment: a feasibility study. Altern Med Stud 2012;2:18-25.

83. Surakka A, Kivela T. Motivating visually impaired and deaf-blind people to perform regular physical exercises. Br J Visual Impair 2008;26:255-68.

84. Li-Korotky H-S. Age-related hearing loss: Quality of care for quality of life. Gerontologist 2012;52:265-71.

85. Chisolm TH, Johnson CE, Danhauer JL, et al. A systematic review of health-related quality of life and hearing aids: Final report of the American Academy of Audiology Task Force on the Health-Related Quality of Life Benefits of Amplification in Adults. J Am Acad Audiol 2007;18:151-83.

86. McCormack A, Fortnum H. Why do people fitted with hearing aids not wear them? Int J Audiol 2013 52:360-8.

87. Meyer C, Hickson L. What factors influence help-seeking for hearing impairment and hearing aid adoption in older adults? Int J Audiol 2012;51:66-74.

88. Andersson G, Green M, Melin L. Behavioural hearing tactics: a controlled trial of a short treatment programme. Behav Res Ther 1997;35:523-30.

89. Andersson G, Melin L, Scott B, et al. Behavioural counselling for subjects with acquired hearing loss. A new approach to hearing tactics. Scandinav Audiol 1994;23:249-56.

90. Burk MH, Humes LE. Effects of long-term training on aided speech-recognition performance in noise in older adults. J Speech Lang Hear Res 2008;51:759-71.

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92. Kramer SE, Allessie GH, Dondorp AW, et al. A home education program for older adults with hearing impairment and their significant others: a randomized trial evaluating short- and long-term effects. Int J Audiol 2005;44:255-64.

93. Hickson L, Worrall L, Scarinci N. Measuring outcomes of a communication program for older people with hearing impairment using the International Outcome Inventory. Int J Audiol 2006;45:238-46.

94. Barcroft J, Sommers MS, Tye-Murray N, et al. Tailoring auditory training to patient needs with single and multiple talkers: Transfer-appropriate gains on a four-choice discrimination test. Int J Audiol 2011;50:802-8.

95. Wahl H-W. The psychological challenge of late-life vision impairment: Concepts, Findings, and practical implications. J Ophthalmol 2013.

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104. Brody BL, Roch-Levecq A-C, Gamst AC, et al. Self-management of age-related macular degeneration and quality of life: a randomized controlled trial. Arch Ophthalmol 2002;120:1477-83.

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108. Eklund K, Sonn U, Dahlin-Ivanoff S. Long-term evaluation of a health education programme for elderly persons with visual impairment. A randomized study. Disabil Rehab 2004;26:401-9.

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112. Rovner BW, Casten RJ, Hegel MT, et al. Preventing depression in age-related macular degeneration. Arch Gen Psychiatr 2007;64:886-92.

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It should also be mentioned in this context that assessment strategies have been developed to better consider the specific life conditions of those with vision and hearing impairment. The best-known and frequently applied instruments in this context are the National Eye Institute Visual Function Questionnaire [30] and the Hearing Handicap Inventory for the Elderly [31].

Cognitive Functioning

Previous research largely supports the notion that reduced vision and hearing function is accompanied by a decrease in cognitive performance in older adults. The work of Lindenberger and Baltes, based on the Berlin Aging Study (BASE)—but also including additional studies with a wider age-range—is central in supporting a strong connection among vision, hearing, balance, and cognitive functioning in later life. Lindenberger and Baltes [32] found that general intelligence correlated just as strongly with visual as with auditory ability. In a model conjoining age, sensory function, as well as intelligence, visual and auditory function predicted a large portion of interindividual differences in intelligence and indeed fully mediated the negative correlation between age and intelligence. This finding has meanwhile been replicated by a number of other research groups and may be regarded as rather robust [33,34]. In addition, Baltes and Lindenberger [35] observed that sensory measures were better predictors of intelligence than socio-structural variables such as education or social class. They also showed that the connection among sensory functioning and intelligence was much closer in older adults as compared to adults in early and middle adulthood [34].

No clear difference between the sensory modalities of vision and hearing has been identified regarding their relationship with cognitive performance. On the one hand, there is research supporting the view that both vision and hearing impairment are connected with cognitive decline [12,36,37], while some evidence also supports that the linkage may be stronger with vision [14]. On the other hand, there are also data not supporting a close connection between vision and hearing impairment and cognitive function [38]. Explanations for such inconsistencies may refer to a number of reasons, such as pronounced positive selectivity of samples (which may lead to underestimation of connections among sensory and cognitive function), the application of established cognitive tests not appropriate for sensory impaired older adults (which may lead to overestimation of connections among sensory and cognitive function), and the application of different cut-off scores for significant vision and hearing impairment (possibly, higher cut-offs may lead to higher, lower to lower connections). Longitudinal data using the latest in causal modeling data analysis support the view that the causal dynamics involved in sensory and intelligence change are complex and that each of these variables can drive change in the other across longer periods of later life [39].

Vision status also plays a role when it comes to the connection between cognitive function and everyday competence—a linkage that is generally challenged as people age and that may lead to endpoints such as dependence on others and transition to long-term care. Heyl et al [40] observed that the link between vision status and out-of-home leisure activities is mediated by cognitive status. In a more recent study, able to add to the understanding of such a mediation process, Heyl and Wahl [38,41] showed that the connection between cognitive function and everyday function is much closer in visually and hearing impaired older adults as compared with visually unimpaired older adults, which possibly means that both visually and hearing impaired elders rely more intensely on their cognitive resources. Causality dynamics may however also work in the opposite direction. As Rovner and colleagues [42,43] observed in a study with age-related macular degeneration patients over 64 years of age covering a 3-year observation period and 2 measurement occasions, activity loss over time due to the visual loss led to cognitive decline happening between T1 and T2. This finding fits well with the more general finding in the cognitive aging literature that the exertion of social and leisure activities is important for maintaining cognitive functioning [44].

References

1. Oeppen J, Vaupel JW. Broken limits to life expectancy. Science 2002;296:1029–31.

2. Eichenbaum JW. Geriatric vision loss due to cataracts, macular degeneration, and glaucoma. Mt Sinai J Med 2012;79:276–94.

3. Ciorba A, Bianchini C, Pelucchi S, et al. The impact of hearing loss on the quality of life of elderly adults. Clin Interven Aging 2012;7:159–63.

4. WHO - World Health Organization and International Agency for the Prevention of Blindness. Developing an action plan to prevent blindness at national, provincial and district levels. Vision 2020 The right to sight. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2004.

5. WHO - World Health Organizaton. Grades of hearing impairment. Geneva: World Health Organization; 2013.

6. Schneider JM, Gopinath B, McMahon CM, et al. Dual sensory impairment in older age. J Aging Health 2011;23:1309–24.

7. Clay OJ, Wadley VG, Edwards JD, et al. Cumulative meta-analysis of the relationship between useful field of view and driving performance in older adults: current and future implications. Optom Vis Sci 2005;82:724–31.

8. Seland JH, Vingerling JR, Augood CA, et al. Visual Impairment and quality of life in the Older European Population, the EUREYE study. Acta Ophthal 2011;89:608–13.

9. Horowitz A, Brennan M, Reinhardt JP. Prevalence and risk factors for self-reported visual impairment among middle-aged and older adults. Research Aging 2005;27:307–26.

10. Gopinath B, Rochtchina E, Wang JJ, et al. Prevalence of age-related hearing loss in older adults: Blue mountains study. Arch Intern Med 2009;169:415–6.

11. Roth TN, Hanebuth D, Probst R. Prevalence of age-related hearing loss in Europe: a review. Eur Arch Otorhinolaryngol 2011;268:1101–7.

12. Lin FR, Thorpe R, Gordon-Salant S, et al. Hearing loss prevalence and risk factors among older adults in the United States. J Gerontol Series A: Biolog Sci Med Sci 2011;66A:582–90.

13. Brennan M, Horowitz A, Su Y-p. Dual sensory loss and its impact on everyday competence. Gerontologist 2005;45:337–46.

14. Anstey KJ, Luszcz MA, Giles LC, et al. Demographic, health, cognitive, and sensory variables as predictors of mortality in very old adults. Psychol Aging 2001;16:3–11.

15. Appollonio I, Carabellese C, Magni E, et al. Sensory impairments and mortality in an elderly community population: A six-year follow-up study. Age Ageing 1995;24:30–6.

16. McCarty CA, Nanjan MB, Taylor HR. Vision impairment predicts 5 year mortality. Br J Ophthalmol 2001;85:322–6.

17. Ostbye T, Steenhuis R, Wolfson C, et al. Predictors of five-year mortality in older Canadians: the Canadian Study of Health and Aging. J Am Geriatr Soc 1999 47:1249–54.

18. Wahl H-W, Heyl V, Drapaniotis PM, et al. Severe vision and hearing impairment and successful aging: A multidimensional view. Gerontologist 2013;53:950–62.

19. Fisher D, Li C-M, Chiu MS, et al. Impairments in hearing and vision impact on mortality in older people: the AGES-Reykjavik Study. Age Ageing 2013.

20. Bamini G, Schneider J, McMahon CM, et al. Dual sensory impairment in older adults inceases the risk of mortality: A population-based study. PLoS ONE 2013;8:1–6.

21. Lam BL, Lee DJ, Gómez-Marín O, et al. Concurrent visual and hearing impairment and risk of mortality: The National Health Interview Survey. Arch Ophthalmol 2006;124:95–101.

22. Baltes MM, Maas I, Wilms H-U, et al. Everyday competence in old and very old age: Theoretical considerations and empirical findings. In: Baltes PB, Mayer K-U, editors. The Berlin Aging Study Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press; 1999: 384–402.

23. Burmedi D, Becker S, Heyl V, et al. Behavioral consequences of age-related low vision: A narrative review. Vis Impair Res 2002;4:15–45.

24. Wahl H-W, Heyl V, Schilling O. Robustness of personality and affect relations under chronic conditions: the case of age-related vision and hearing impairment. J Gerontol B Psycholog Sci Soc Sci 2012;67:687–96.

25. Heyl V, Wahl H-W. On the long-term psychosocial adaptation to vision loss in the later years. In: Wahl H-W, Schulze H-E, editors. On the special needs of blind and low vision seniors: Research and practice concepts. Amsterdam: IOS-Press; 2001: 77–83.

26. Wahl H-W, Schilling O, Oswald F, et al. Psychosocial consequences of age-related visual impairment: Comparison with mobility-impaired older adults and long-term outcome. J Gerontol Psych Sci Soc Sci 1999;54B:P304–P16.

27. Wahl H-W, Becker S, Burmedi D, et al. The role of primary and secondary control in adaptation to age-related vision loss: A study of older adults with macular degeneration Psychol Aging 2004;19:235–9.

28. Rudberg MA, Furner SE, Dunn JE, et al. The relationship of visual and hearing impairments to disability: An analysis using the Longitudinal Study of Aging. J Gerontol Med Sci 1993;48:M261–M5.

29. Schneider J, Gopinath B, Karpa MJ, et al. Hearing loss impacts on the use of community and informal supports. Age Ageing 2010;39:458–64.

30. Mangione CM, Lee PP, Gutierrez PR, et al. Development of the 25-item National Eye Institute visual function questionnaire. Arch Ophthalmol 2001;119:1050–8.

31. Ventry I, Weinstein B. The hearing handicap inventory for the elderly: A new tool. Ear Hearing 1982;3:128–34.

32. Lindenberger U, Baltes PB. Sensory functioning and intelligence in old age: A strong connection. Psychol Aging 1994;9:339–55.

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Experiencing Age-Related Vision and Hearing Impairment: The Psychosocial Dimension

References

Cognitive Functioning

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